History 4250 Portfolio

Theme by Anders Norén

Author: msales

Defining and Contesting Illness – Pregnancy

“Exercising Caution: The Production of Medical Knowledge about Physical Exertion during Pregnancy” – Shannon Jette

The article by Shannon Jette, discussed the debate of whether women should exercise while they are pregnant. This debate is complex as to if women should exercise, but also, what type of exercise is best, if they did decide to exercise. As doctors became more involved in pregnancy and childbirth, there was more supervision as to what women did, and the impact and risk it was having on their growing babies. This represents the shift of medicalization, as doctors are more involved and have more say over how women handle themselves during their pregnancy. This article adds to the historiography of this topic because it is a concern of today. It does not pose as big of a threat but it is still something that requires women to be in constant talk with their doctors about. In the article, a piece of advice was given and it was, “listen to your body.”[1] It was said to be the most common advice given to pregnant women. Having doctors more involved, especially during this activity of pregnancy, ensures that the growing baby stays health, through testing, and due to the research done on blood and oxygen in the body, especially during pregnancy. It was also discussed as to how exercising during pregnancy became as big as it is, the article used the example of the Jane Fonda workout video for pregnant women, which featured safe exercises that could be done. It was also suggested that the types of exercises done during pregnancy, can help prepare the body for labour, due to further research done.

 

“Gender Expectation: Natural Bodies and Births in the New Midwifery in Canada” – Margaret Macdonald

I really liked this article because it had interviews and personal experiences of women who have chosen to give birth at home with a midwife, and it also had interviews with midwives. Having these interviews allows us as readers to remain engaged and take more from the information presented. This article focused on midwives, and their position on “natural” birth. It was stated by one midwife that “the inevitability that some women will fail in the goal to birth naturally – at home, without drugs, without interventions, and without screaming in pain”[2] and that is the reason behind why most midwives do not define “natural” birth. All the midwives in this article suggest that the women in labour need to be able to make their own choices when it comes to their childbirth. They use this as an argument to support giving birth at home, as the medicalization and higher levels of supervision by doctors, can present less choices to women in labour. This article adds to the historiography of this topic, as it follows the trend of child birth and the evolution of midwives. Which I can use to discuss in my paper, as it also allows me to compare the arguments, as to whether or not women should give birth in hospitals or at home.

 

““An illness of Nine Months’ Duration”: Pregnancy and Thalidomide Use in Canada and the United States” – Barbara Clow

This article was very informational in terms of the drug Thalidomide, among others. Thalidomide was a drug prescribed to women who struggled with morning sickness, as well as to help with sleeping. It was later determined it caused deformation of limbs in fetuses, and it was no longer prescribed. This article also discussed the effects of other drugs on fetuses and the unknown negative impacts. I’m planning on using this article in my paper as there is mention of alcohol during pregnancy and the different opinions on its impact on the fetus. This article discusses how pregnancy was seen as an illness and what doctors with that perspective were likely to do about it. It was stated “Doctors who endorsed this view of gestation, whether practising in Canada or the United States, tended to prescribe tranquilizers on the grounds that many of the common “complaints” of pregnancy could be attributed to psychological disturbance.”[3] At this point in time, there was little research done on the impact of drugs given to the mother, on the fetus. As history shows, and as research was done, there was more understanding and evidence of the harmful effects on the fetus. This article does a good job in terms of following the history of this topic, and it used an example of a women, who was prescribed Thalidomide, and what the outcome, and lack of knowledge was of the impacts. Tobacco was touched on in this article too, as there was no evidence at the time that it would cause harm to the baby. With a lack of knowledge, doctors had concerned such as, “intercourse in the final weeks of pregnancy than about smoking, alcohol consumption, or the use of prescription drugs.”[4] These types of concerns were simply a lack of information and as time went on, concerns altered.

 

“The Political “Nature” of Pregnancy and Childbirth” – Candace Johnson

This article is one I plan on using in my research paper and it fits perfectly with the topic of this week as it contains little bits of everything discussed in this week’s readings. It spends a good portion of the article discussing the debate of what is considered “natural” birth. The debate of free birth and natural birth is also mentioned in the article by Margret Macdonald, as the experiences of the midwives and mothers that are mentioned in that article. This article also discussed the medicalization of childbirth and pregnancy and how doctors supervised their patient’s closer. It was stated “During pregnancy this surveillance effort is increased, as medical doctors and nurses conduct tests to ensure that mothers are complying with best medical practices and fetuses are developing normally.”[5] The supervision of doctors influenced more research to be done, which included debated such as the exercise pregnant women should or should not do while they are pregnant, as discussed in Shannon Jette. This article is beneficial to my research paper because it discusses childbirth in many settings and the different outcomes, and impacts. This article also discusses the limitation that effected certain races, and the limited access to midwife services. The historical significance of this article relates to the knowledge and research conducted on childbirth and pregnancy and how the new information discovered allows for better care and more choices for expectant women.

 

Bibliography

Clow, Barbara, “‘An Illness of Nine Months’ Duration’: Pregnancy and Thalidomide Use in Canada and the United States,” in Feldberg, Ladd-Taylor, Li and McPherson, Women, Health, and Nation, Montreal” McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003: 45-66.

Jette, Shannon, “Exercising Caution: The Production of Medical Knowledge about Physical Exertion during Pregnancy”, Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 28, 2 (2011): 293     313.

Johnson, Candace, “The Political “Nature” of Pregnancy and Childbirth”, Canadian Political Science Association and the Societe Quebecoise de science politique, 41, 4 (Dec 2008),    pp. 889-913.

MacDonald, Margaret, “Gender Expectations: Natural Bodies and Natural Birth in the New Midwifery in Canada, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 20, 2 (2006): 235-256.

 

[1] Shannon Jette, “Exercising Caution: The Production of Medical Knowledge about Physical Exertion during Pregnancy”, Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 28, 2 (2011): 304.

[2] Margaret MacDonald, “Gender Expectations: Natural Bodies and Natural Birth in the New Midwifery in Canada, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 20, 2 (2006): 243.

[3] Barbara Clow, “‘An Illness of Nine Months’ Duration’: Pregnancy and Thalidomide Use in Canada and the United States,” in Feldberg, Ladd-Taylor, Li and McPherson, Women, Health, and Nation, Montreal” McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003: 49.

[4] Clow, “‘An Illness of Nine Months’ Duration’”, 51.

[5] Candace Johnson, “The Political “Nature” of Pregnancy and Childbirth”, Canadian Political Science Association and the Societe Quebecoise de science politique, 41, 4 (Dec 2008), pp. 894.

Embodied Citizenship – Indigenous Health

“Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942-1952” – Ian Mosby

With the theme of this week being about embodying citizenship, this article by Ian Mosby wrote, really focused on the “Indian Problem”.[1] The idea that these people should not be treated like white Canadians, has been a common part of history, but there is only a certain amount of information that is taught in schools, so as we read articles like this one, we are able to learn more about this community of people. This was seen as a problem because the Aboriginal community seemed to be having more health problems, than everyone else in society. This caused distress because the Aboriginal people were already seen as an unwanted part of society. Having health become a fundamental topic in society, there was a large amount of focus placed on the health of everyone and the increase in illness in the Aboriginal community. Not only was health a major focus in the Aboriginal community, but it became a focus in the residential school. It was suggested in this article that when the schools were looked at by health investigators, the meals provided for the children, were substantially better than usually, but the investigators still found major health concerns at the schools. This article discusses certain experiments that were conducted amongst the Aboriginal community that were considered mistreatment and they played into the future polices that were created in terms of treatment of the Aboriginal Community. This article provided some additional information to the knowledge I had in this area prior to, but it had some interesting additions, such as the investigators in the residential schools and how the meals were changed to make the management look more adequate.

 

“The impact of Colonization on Aboriginal Health in British Columbia”    – Mary Ellen Kelm

This article discussed the impact and issues that arose as the medicalization of society, became more prominent. This caused the Aboriginal community to run into some issues with their lifestyle and how they have dealt with illness in the past, with their natural remedies. Mary Ellen Kelm touched on the idea of how the Aboriginal community, has a unique way of thinking of every member of their society. It was stated “a missing person became a missing piece of the circle which could not be replaced.”[2] It was also discusses the idea that Aboriginal’s bodies were considerably strong when under attack of illness, their ability to handle diseases, with their traditional lifestyle. The state began to implement all new health regulations and began to take it more seriously, Kelm suggested that the use of a doctor became increasingly normalized which caused struggle for the Aboriginal community, as it pushed them away from their traditional lifestyle. I found this article to have interesting components, due to the idea that the Aboriginal community was confident in their lifestyle and how they pushed back for so long when it came to accommodating the new ideas of health.

 

“Care for the ‘Racially Careless’: Indian Hospitals in the Canadian West, 1920-1950s” – Maureen K. Lux

This article by Maureen K. Lux was really interesting as there was a large amount of evidence provided in terms of how the Aboriginal community was really pushed aside and they were treated unfairly in compared to the rest of society. There were certain hospitals that refused to take in patients of the Aboriginal community, and there were hospitals that separated these patients, so they would not infect anyone else. This idea was disconnected to the idea of citizenship, as this community of people was denied of equal medical attention, these people were seen as less than adequate to receive the same rights and opportunities as everyone else. The Aboriginal community was denied the same medical attention as the rest of society, but then deemed ‘careless’[3] because they were sick more than everyone else. The state become very involved in deciding who and what level of care was received by these people. The idea of the state being able to decide who is granted the access to health care and to what extent was concerned health. Lux suggests that the Aboriginal community was ill more than the rest of society, and due to the lack of hospitals taking people in for treatment, illness spread through the community. Lux also suggests that not only did the illness spread in community of Aboriginals, it also spread in the hospitals as the sick Aboriginal people were contained in the same segregated section of the hospital. Tuberculosis, was discussed extensively in this article, and it was suggested that it was commonly spread between Aboriginals and it was even stated that “children admitted for other medical conditions contracted tuberculosis in the hospitals.”[4] The idea that the Aboriginal community was denied medical care to the level of everyone else, was new information to me, as I was reading it, and it was quite shocking to me. It seems to be an important part of their history that we might not learn about if we are never drawn to this area of research.

 

“Ideal Births and Ideal Babies: English-Canadian Advice Literature in the 1950s and 1960s” – Sally Mennill

This article is one I plan on using for my research paper and it was a really good article to pick for this week because it talks about embodying citizens, in terms of pregnant women. It touches on how childbirth needed to occur in the hospitals more regularly as it was required for doctors to ensure the health of both the mother and the child. This really shifted the independence of women giving birth to their child at their home, and placed increasing amount of outside opinion of what was healthy and how they could live during their pregnancy. Pregnancy and childbirth become more of a medicalized life event, opposed to the common passing along of information in families. It was stated that “women’s very citizenship became tied to maternal responsibility while many activists embraced public parenting or mothering.”[5] This article is going to work well with my research paper because I am planning on looking into how pregnancy and the contra indicators, such as alcohol were brought into consideration.

Having doctors more involved in reproduction, there was more research done, and there was more interest in the topic, as health became more and more of a common topic. It also allowed for not only doctor, but mothers to learn more about what was occurring in their bodies and how to have a health pregnancy and a healthy baby, which was becoming an increasingly high demand for society.

 

Bibliography

Kelm, Mary Ellen, “The Impact of Colonization on Aboriginal Health in British Columbia” in Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950, Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998:

Lux, Maureen, “‘Care for the ‘Racially Careless’: Indian Hospitals in the Canadian West, 1920-1950s” Canadian Historical Review, 91, 3 (2010): 407-434.

Mennill, Sally, “Ideal Births and Ideal Babies: English-Canadian Advice Literature in the 1950s and 1960s.” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 2014, Vol. 31 Issue 2, p. 25-47.

Mosby, Ian, “Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical  Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942-1952” Histoire sociale/Social History, XLVI, No. 91 (Mai/May 2013), 615-642.

 

[1] Ian Mosby, “Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942-1952” Histoire sociale/Social History, XLVI, No. 91 (Mai/May 2013), 615-642.

 

[2] Mary Ellen Kelm, “The Impact of Colonization on Aboriginal Health in British Columbia” in Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950, Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998: 10.

 

[3] Maureen Lux, “‘Care for the ‘Racially Careless’: Indian Hospitals in the Canadian West, 1920-1950s” Canadian Historical Review, 91, 3 (2010): 407-434.

[4] Lux, “‘Care for the ‘Racially Careless’”, 433.

[5] Sally Mennill, “Ideal Births and Ideal Babies: English-Canadian Advice Literature in the 1950sand 1960s.” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 2014, Vol. 31 Issue 2, p. 34.

 

Defining and Contesting Illness – Natural Approaches and Healthism

The main ideas of these articles focused on the societal construction of gender and how it is connected to exercise or sport.

“The Heterosexual Nature of Health and Hygiene Advertisements in the Cold War” – Thomas Wendelboe

This article was interesting because it discussed the idea of the heterosexual image of men and how it justified certain aspects of society as being a real man. The image of heterosexuality and the societal determined image of a desirable man was being used to sell health products, and certain sports were deemed male sports. This article spent time suggesting that the sphere of sports was seen as a male dominated area of society. The idea that the image of a socially constructed male was used the sell health products is an interesting topic. This idea seemed to create the sexualization of all the products that were advertised in this way. While focusing on the dominate idea of heterosexual males, Thomas Wendelboe suggested the negative stigma that was placed on homosexual males and the image that is portrayed. The societal thoughts on homosexuality during the time period this article focused on were not positive and there were demeaning names associated with anyone who identified in that way. This article adds to the historical context of this broader topic of socially constructed ideals for men, it goes to show the stigma that was placed on anything that did not match up with masculinity or heterosexuality.

 

“Let Me Hear Your Body Talk: Aerobics for Fat Women Only, 1981-1985” – Jenny Ellison

Jenny Ellison touches on some body image issues that are still prevalent in society today, and that is the idea of overweight women taking part in fitness classes. She focuses on the idea of these classes designed for overweight women, and they performed exercises that would benefit them, and would be doable. This idea really took off when these overweight women started teaching these classes, instead of a small, fit individual. Not only was it suggested that this type of class was beneficial to the self-esteem or self-confidence of these women, because they were surrounded by women who looked, and most likely struggled with the same issues they did. It would have provided a safe place for them to exercise but also be in a place with people like them without judgement. The societal construction of this groups of people in society, was portrayed in a very negative manner, and it caused much negative stigma around these women. The idea of exercise for overweight women was challenged when these classes became popular, and it changed the way these women thought of themselves and exercise. Some could argue that this idea constructed about overweight women and exercise still occurs today and it is still a common struggle that women face in today’s society. This article adds to the greater historiography of this topic, and how this stereotype was slightly altered over time, but society hasn’t completely changed. To this day, society presents an image of what women should look like in the media, which in some cases is impossible to achieve, but that image affects how all women think of themselves.

 

“Alcohol use During Pregnancy: A Challenge for the ‘80s.” – Mary Jane Ashley

In this article, Mary Jane Ashley discusses the changes in research that have been done in the 1900s. She quotes a 1965 book written by Ashley Montague stating, “it can now be stated categorically, after hundreds of studies covering many years, that no matter how great the amounts of alcohol taken by the mother – or by the father, for that matter – neither the germ cells nor the development of the child will be affected.”[1] I have interlibrary loaned this book by Montague to use in my paper, to support that even in 1965, alcohol was not seen as a contra-indicator. It was also discussed in this article by Ashley, that even in the 80s they were still discussing and doing research on the impacts of alcohol on fetuses, and trying to determine whether there were significant, life changing effects of alcohol. It was suggested that the determination on social drinking was still being discussed, as to whether it caused damage, and if women could still partake in it during their pregnancy. Ashley stated that it was determined that heavy drinking did result in a negative impact on the unborn child. Even though this article does not connect significantly to the other articles assigned for this week, it still discusses a socially constructed idea and how hard it can be to change the norm, even with research. It was also suggested by Ashley that since the detrimental effects of alcohol use during pregnancy are fairly recent discovery, in the 80s, that there were still some older doctors who weren’t necessarily trained or educated in this new development, meaning that the 1960s ways of thinking about this topic was still floating round in the 80s.  This article adds to the historical evidence of this topic because it shows the slow change in a societal constructed idea on health and safety of fetuses.

 

Bibliography

Ashley, Mary Jane “Alcohol use during pregnancy: A Challenge in the ‘80s.” Canadian Medical Association Journal (1981) Vol. 125 p. 141-143

Ellison, Jenny, “‘Let Me Hear Your Body Talk’: Aerobics for Fat Women Only, 1981-1985,” in Cheryl Krasnick Warsh (Ed), Gender, Health and Popular Culture: Historical Perspectives, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011: 193-214

Wendelboe, Thomas, “The Heterosexual Nature of Health and Hygiene Advertisements” in Penny Light, et.al, “Introduction,” in Bodily Subjects: Essays on Gender and Health, 1800-2000, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015:

 

[1] Mary Jane Ashley, “Alcohol use during pregnancy: A Challenge in the ‘80s.” Canadian Medical Association Journal (1981) Vol. 125 p. 141.

Embodied Citizenship – Health in Schools

“Ordering the Bath: Children, Health, and Hygiene in Northern Canadian Communities, 1900-1970.” – Myra Rutherdale.

This article by Myra Rutherdale, was captivating as it went into detail about how the tension between the Aboriginal community and the European Canadians, continued to build and forms of assimilation were used. With Aboriginal communities being exposed to illness when the Europeans first came over, the issue of health was always prevalent. Rutherdale uses common health practices that were seen in both cultures, and provided evidence that displays the struggle of differences. She talks about childbirth, dressing, bathing, and having children on schedules. These areas are of importance of the world of health and hygiene as a positive outcome of these practices was crucial for good health.

There was a heavy sense of importance placed on the health of children, as they were in schools, so the practice of bathing was becoming increasingly important but unheard of by the Aboriginal children and was a breathtaking shock, according to the evidence. This was an interesting concept to read about, as for someone who grew up as a “white Canadian”, reading that bathing was something other than a normal practice.

There was a large presence of the church and missionaries, in residential schools but as well in the community and this new focus on health was pushed everywhere. It was suggested that nurses who did house calls had a better opportunity of providing information around the importance of health and hygiene.

In the community, there was a large interest in how aboriginal women experienced childbirth. Some wanted to change the traditional practices of Aboriginal women, but others only wanted to provide new technologies that might make their traditional practices easier, but not alter them in anyway. There were differing opinions as to what was to be done immediately after the child was born, but these changed as the years went on and more information was gathered.

Another major theme that was discusses in Rutherdale’s article was having children on schedules and how it was supposed to significantly improve development. She provided evidence supporting that children did better with routines and a consistent schedule.

All of these hygiene and health practices were growing increasingly important and Rutherdale was successful in exploring this area of interest and was able to add to the knowledge and information already collected. This widened the understanding of how challenging It would have been for the Aboriginal community to continue with their traditional practices when the White Canadian’s way of dealing with health was so prominent and pushed on them.

This article can be discussed with the Mona Gleason article, “Race, Class, and Health: School Medical Inspection and “Healthy” Children in British Columbia, 1890-1930”, as the focus of both of these article is on the assimilation of immigrants and any other culture that did not have the same health practices as the White Canadians.

 

“Race, Class, and Health: School Medical Inspection and “Healthy” Children in British Columbia, 1890-1930.” – Mona Gleason.

Mona Gleason focuses on the Chinese immigrants, and the Native children in classrooms, and she emphasizes the evidence that supports the hygiene of these students. This article looked into what took place in schools and how teachers played a major role in the maintenance of health and hygiene of the students. Assimilation techniques that are displayed in this article are to ensure that the amount of illness decreases and all of society

Teachers were put in charge of examining children and determining whether they had an illness, and then needed to suggest treatment for the child. This seems like a burden that teachers should not have carried, the lack of training these teachers had to make these determinations. These teachers were considered “medical officers”[1] and were implementing the assimilation methods, with the children of society.

It was desired that every student had the same health practices to limit the amount of illness and disease. It was stated, ““Health lessons are necessarily very elemental when one remembers that most of the children have previously never seen a tooth brush, a bath tub was unheard of, and a balanced diet beyond the limits of imagination…. Surely our chief aim in this special branch of our work is to help develop the Indian into a healthy, respectable, self-supporting citizen.”” (287)[2] This quote stood out, as it suggests how culturally different these students were, the lack of hygiene seemed to be a struggle. As immigration became more popular, and the more integration that took place, increased the concern of everyone practicing the same hygiene traditions. It is suggested in this quote that it was desired to have all children practicing the same form of hygiene to ensure everyone stays healthy.

This article can be connected to the Myra Rutherdale article “Ordering the Bath: Children, Health, and Hygiene in Northern Canadian Communities, 1900-1970” as both of these articles discuss the fear of there being another culture that considers health issues differently. The forms of assimilation that continue in different areas of the Aboriginals lives, took a toll on their cultural traditions.

 

Bibliography

Gleason Mona, “School Medical Inspection and ‘Healthy’ Children in British Columbia, 1890-1930,” in Krasnick Warsh and Strong-Boag (Eds.), Children’s Health Issues in Historical Perspective, Waterloo, WLU Press, 2005: 287-304.

Rutherdale Myra, “Children, Health, and Hygiene in Norther Canadian Communities,” in Krasnick Warsh and Strong-Boag (Eds.), Children’s Health Issues in Historical Perspective, Waterloo, WLU Press, 2005: 305-32.

 

[1] Mona Gleason, “School Medical Inspection and ‘Healthy’ Children in British Columbia, 1890-1930,” in Krasnick Warsh and Strong-Boag (Eds.), Children’s Health Issues in Historical Perspective, Waterloo, WLU Press, 2005: 287-304.

[2] Gleason, “School Medical Inspection and ‘Healthy’ Children in British Columbia, 1890-1930,”, 287.

 

Authority and Ideals – Lived Experience

“For Fixing to Enhancing Bodies: Shifting Ideals of health and gender in the medical discourse on cosmetic surgery in twentieth century Canada” – Tracy Penny Light

This article was interesting to read as I have not looked into cosmetic surgery a lot, but the connection of “fixing”[1] bodies that are not broken, or modifying them in order to meet societal standards. Tracy Penny Light’s major focus in this chapter was the idea that when cosmetic surgery is used in ways that are not fixing life threating issues. This article discussed that the psychological well-being of these patients was seen as more important than altering something that was necessary to alter. The main reason cosmetic patients were undergoing these procedures was to live up to the impossible standards placed on each gender that society had created. With desire to live up to these societal norms, there is the struggle of naturally living up to them and the surgical option is the only option left. This is connected to the psychological well-being of individuals in the society who are struggling, to meet these unrealistic standards. In society today, the stereotypes and gender ideals are very prevalent, and the challenge to meet these are increasing at a rapidly pace. This article by Tracy Penny Light discusses the connection of gender and the roles that everyone plays in society and the importance of it. This article fits well into the historiography of cosmetic surgery and its connection to gender and how society plays a significant role in how we view ourselves in term of others, and how cosmetic surgery allowed for individuals to have access to try to achieve the impossible standards. There is a connection between this article and the other article that was assigned for this week, is that they both stress the impact of gender in society, in all aspects and how gender allows us to be the citizens society desires us to be.

“I Feel like a Girl Inside”: Possibilities for Gender and Sexual Diversity in Early Primary School” – Anika Nicole Stafford

This article was interesting because as I get closer to becoming a teacher and having my own classroom, the thought of this teacher presenting this to her classroom, was something I never thought I’d have to think of teaching that. Although, I do agree with the idea that the when children play games in the playground, they should not have teams that are “girls vs boys” they should have different team names, as the example in the article did. This article was informative of gender in schools, and how they have been teaching children, and helping them understand that anyone who is different, in terms of gender orientation, should not be treated differently. It made an interesting point that “the poster [discussing homophobia] in the classroom was above my eye level. This sends an interesting message about sexuality and otherness: they are present but not in plain sight.”[2] The placement of these posters showed that it was something that was not discussed at great length. The discussion of “sexuality and otherness”[3] in schools is not a regular conversation, but it shows that children are able to pick up on differences at young ages and how they are not necessarily as innocent as assumed. This article is connected to the historiography of this topic of gender in grade school and how it plays a role in the impact of play and other aspects of the social environment of schools. The role of gender and differences found in other students, are connected to the overpowering impact of societal construction of gender ideas, and this can be connected to the chapter written by Tracy Penny Light. Gender influences who we are as citizen and what roles and behaviours we are supposed to take on based on gender, and the backlash if individuals fall short.

 

“What’s the Matter with Obstetrics?” – Little – CMAJ (May 1929)

This source is a primary source and I plan on using it in my paper to support the debate between doctors and midwives in terms of where and who should be involved during childbirth.  As childbirth was in the process of becoming medicalized, there were several debates and struggles of to the education that was provided to students as well as the procedures performed in hospitals. The argument that this article from Canada Medical Association Journal, is that the when women experience childbirth at the hospital, they lose the personal touch of a midwife as they might not perform all the unnecessary procedures the doctors do. It was discussed in this article that doctors are trained to do certain steps when a woman is in labour, but they don’t specialize it to the individual like the midwife might. This debate of hospitalization for childbirth has continued through the years and even today, we still see this debate raised. The connection to the historiography of this topic is that it adds to the argument of midwives and how some women may desire the more personal experience, and to not have procedures performed that are unnecessary. In my paper, I plan on discussing how there was much debate and opposition to the medicalization of childbirth, and how mortality was a large factor and the welfare of mother and child became a large concern since the death rates were increasing in the hospitals opposed to the statistics of home births. This article fits in well, and it argues for midwifes to still be the primary childbirth caregivers, and that this part of life should not become a male dominated field.[4]

 

 

 

Bibliography

H. M. Little, “What’s the Matter With Obstetrics,” CMAJ (May 1929): 646-647.

Penny Light, Tracy, “From Fixing to Enhancing Bodies: Shifting Ideals of Health and Gender in    the Medical Discourse on Cosmetic Surgery in Twentieth Century Canada,” in Penny Light, et.al, Bodily Subjects: Essays on Gender and Health, 1800-2000, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015: 319-346.

Stafford, Anika, “‘I Feel Like a Girl Inside’: Possibilities for Gender and Sexual Diversity in Early Primary School,” BC Studies, 181 (Spring 2016): 9-29.

 

[1]  Penny Light, Tracy, “From Fixing to Enhancing Bodies: Shifting Ideals of Health and Gender in the Medical Discourse on Cosmetic Surgery in Twentieth Century Canada,” in Penny Light, et.al, Bodily Subjects: Essays on Gender and Health, 1800-2000, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015: 319-346.

 

[2] Anika Stafford, “‘I Feel Like a Girl Inside’: Possibilities for Gender and Sexual Diversity in Early Primary School,” BC Studies, 181 (Spring 2016): 18.

[3] Stafford, “‘I Feel Like a Girl Inside’, 18.

[4] H. M. Little, “What’s the Matter With Obstetrics,” CMAJ (May 1929): 647.

Authority and Ideals – Medical Experts

“Expertise, Health, and Popular Opinion: Debating Water Fluoridation” – Catherine Carstairs

This article discussed the idea that despite the opinions of the experts, and in this case, that was dentists, and doctors. At a point in history, the opinions of the experts were taken seriously, and over anything else. The issue of fluoridation of the water, became a bigger debate than expected. Women’s groups took the argument of individuals rights to their bodies, and their rights to choose. Dentists claimed that a small amount of fluoride in the water was actually beneficial to the health of teeth, and from an economic perspective this would save on dental bills. There were two sides to this debate and it has historical importance as to how society, debated over the issue, opposed to accepting the opinions of the experts. The people who were against fluoride in the water, suggested that it took the rights to choose away from individuals, they also strongly enforced all the negative effects of the exposure to fluoride, such as cancer. The opposing argument was that it was especially beneficial in the health of children’s teeth. This article has historical significance because the change in health advances and how society adapted to it. It was suggested in this article that because the impact of fluoride was seen especially in the health of children, this was a much bigger deal during the Baby Boom. During this time, the debate whether fluoride in the water was to go forward, was relay in the best interest of the children, so it fell on the parents to make the decision.

 

““The Rising Generation”: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920-1970” – Cynthia Comacchio

This article was interesting to read, as the stage of the adolescent was being constructed from the 1920s to the 1970s, and the various changes that took place in society that changed the norms, and ways of thinking and dealing with certain topics and situations in societies. During this time, the idea sex underwent a dramatic change, youth were taking part in what was consider and “adult domain.”[1] Premarital sex is always considered in this time frame as the gender ideals are changing. We see the introduction of the flapper, and how that brought a new idea to how women could behave. This brought many changes to the idea of females in what was expected and what was tolerated. There was still a double standard placed on them in their relations with men, and it was continuing to be fought against. This article is important to the historiography of this topic as it adds to the issues and ideas discussed in terms of sex and this younger generation. Sex education was being introduced in schools during this time, and it was debated as to whether it was the job of the doctors, teacher or parents, and from this article, it seemed that there were many opinions as to who was the best to intervene in the knowledge of this topic. The other main topic discussed in this article is the emphasis placed on reproduction, especially the health of female. It was suggested that they did different forms of work, just so they did not jeopardize their abilities to reproduce, and that they were considered delicate and fragile. This has been seen as an important aspect of female health through history, and isn’t as much of a concern in society now, but it continuously been acknowledged through history.

 

“Doctors, Hospitals, and Field Matrons: On the Ground with Indian Health Services” –  Mary Ellen Kelm

This article has significant historical evidence due to the fact that the pluralism of indigenous medicine. It was suggested in this article that there was not enough money, for there to be a hospital in Bella Bella, and the assistance of the non-Indigenous doctors and others to support the hospital. This, in term required the Indigenous community to use the medical knowledge of non-indigenous cultures. To ensure their medical techniques and teachings were not lost in the future generations, they continued to use their own, and then take advantage of the other health care. This did cause some issues with the non-indigenous patients at the hospitals, they were requesting that the hospitals were the segregated so there was no contact with indigenous patients. We see this continuously through history, where the Indigenous communities are either isolated or attempted to be assimilated. This was much the case in this article as it discussed the segregation in the hospital, as well as the assimilation of this community. There were field matrons that were sent out to assist the indigenous people that the hired doctors refused to go help. These women were chosen as they were less expensive, due to their limited education. It was becoming the job of a women, to assist the sick, to a certain extent. With the mothering, and caregiving aspects of the gender constructed ideas, these women were primarily sent out to help these people. They still provided non-indigenous health care, so it was a form of assimilation, but it wasn’t the only form of is suggested in this article. There were missionaries that focused on medical care, and their goal was to convert as many Indigenous people as possible. A continuous struggle for the Indigenous people was seen as a group that could be taken advantage of.

 

“Effects of Alcohol on Threatened Premature Labor” – Anna-Riitta Fuchs, Fritz Fuchs, Vicente F. Poblete Jr, and Abraham Risk

This article ties slightly into the article of this week, as the information and evidence of the use of alcohol has changed over time. This article is an American source, and I do plan on incorporated it into my paper to build on the Canadian sources. The discussion of alcohol being used to prevent premature labour, and influenced the oxytocin levels in the pregnant women, which would influence the lactation process. This article is helpful to my research as it shows that the use of alcohol was useful in the prevention of the contractions. Now through research that has been done, we can see that this might have solved one problem, in this case preterm labour, but it would have caused another issue, such as the negative and permanent impact on the growing fetus. I’m using this article to show that there is a gap in the information gathered on the effects of alcohol on a growing fetus, I’m going to try to use this as an example when I look at the research involving the medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth.

 

Bibliography

Carstairs, Catherine, “Expertise, Health, and Popular Opinion: Debating Water Fluoridation, 1945- 1980,” Canadian Historical Review, 89 (2008): 345-371.

Comacchio, Cynthia, “‘The Rising Generation’: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920-70,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 19 (2002): 139-178.

Fuchs, Anna-Riitta, Fritz Fuchs, Vicente F. Poblete Jr, and Abraham Risk. “Effects of Alcohol on  Threatened Premature Labor” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, (1967) 99(5) p.627-637.

Kelm, Mary Ellen, “Doctors, Hospitals, and Field Matrons.” In Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950, Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998: 129-152.

 

[1] Cynthia Comacchio, “‘The Rising Generation’: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents inEnglish Canada, 1920-70,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 19 (2002): 146.

Defining and Contesting Illness – Natural Approaches and Healthism

The main ideas of these articles focused on the societal construction of gender and how it is connected to exercise or sport.

“The Heterosexual Nature of Health and Hygiene Advertisements in the Cold War” – Thomas Wendelboe

This article was interesting because it discussed the idea of the heterosexual image of men and how it justified certain aspects of society as being a real man. The image of heterosexuality and the societal determined image of a desirable man was being used to sell health products, and certain sports were deemed male sports. This article spent time suggesting that the sphere of sports was seen as a male dominated area of society. The idea that the image of a socially constructed male was used the sell health products is an interesting topic. This idea seemed to create the sexualization of all the products that were advertised in this way. While focusing on the dominate idea of heterosexual males, Thomas Wendelboe suggested the negative stigma that was placed on homosexual males and the image that is portrayed. The societal thoughts on homosexuality during the time period this article focused on were not positive and there were demeaning names associated with anyone who identified in that way. This article adds to the historical context of this broader topic of socially constructed ideals for men, it goes to show the stigma that was placed on anything that did not match up with masculinity or heterosexuality.

 

“Let Me Hear Your Body Talk: Aerobics for Fat Women Only, 1981-1985” – Jenny Ellison

Jenny Ellison touches on some body image issues that are still prevalent in society today, and that is the idea of overweight women taking part in fitness classes. She focuses on the idea of these classes designed for overweight women, and they performed exercises that would benefit them, and would be doable. This idea really took off when these overweight women started teaching these classes, instead of a small, fit individual. Not only was it suggested that this type of class was beneficial to the self-esteem or self-confidence of these women, because they were surrounded by women who looked, and most likely struggled with the same issues they did. It would have provided a safe place for them to exercise but also be in a place with people like them without judgement. The societal construction of this groups of people in society, was portrayed in a very negative manner, and it caused much negative stigma around these women. The idea of exercise for overweight women was challenged when these classes became popular, and it changed the way these women thought of themselves and exercise. Some could argue that this idea constructed about overweight women and exercise still occurs today and it is still a common struggle that women face in today’s society. This article adds to the greater historiography of this topic, and how this stereotype was slightly altered over time, but society hasn’t completely changed. To this day, society presents an image of what women should look like in the media, which in some cases is impossible to achieve, but that image affects how all women think of themselves.

 

“Alcohol use During Pregnancy: A Challenge for the ‘80s.” – Mary Jane Ashley

In this article, Mary Jane Ashley discusses the changes in research that have been done in the 1900s. She quotes a 1965 book written by Ashley Montague stating, “it can now be stated categorically, after hundreds of studies covering many years, that no matter how great the amounts of alcohol taken by the mother – or by the father, for that matter – neither the germ cells nor the development of the child will be affected.”[1] I have interlibrary loaned this book by Montague to use in my paper, to support that even in 1965, alcohol was not seen as a contra-indicator. It was also discussed in this article by Ashley, that even in the 80s they were still discussing and doing research on the impacts of alcohol on fetuses, and trying to determine whether there were significant, life changing effects of alcohol. It was suggested that the determination on social drinking was still being discussed, as to whether it caused damage, and if women could still partake in it during their pregnancy. Ashley stated that it was determined that heavy drinking did result in a negative impact on the unborn child. Even though this article does not connect significantly to the other articles assigned for this week, it still discusses a socially constructed idea and how hard it can be to change the norm, even with research. It was also suggested by Ashley that since the detrimental effects of alcohol use during pregnancy are fairly recent discovery, in the 80s, that there were still some older doctors who weren’t necessarily trained or educated in this new development, meaning that the 1960s ways of thinking about this topic was still floating round in the 80s.  This article adds to the historical evidence of this topic because it shows the slow change in a societal constructed idea on health and safety of fetuses.

 

 

Bibliography

Ashley, Mary Jane “Alcohol use during pregnancy: A Challenge in the ‘80s.” Canadian Medical Association Journal (1981) Vol. 125 p. 141-143

Ellison, Jenny, “‘Let Me Hear Your Body Talk’: Aerobics for Fat Women Only, 1981-1985,” in    Cheryl Krasnick Warsh (Ed), Gender, Health and Popular Culture: Historical Perspectives, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011: 193-214

Wendelboe, Thomas, “The Heterosexual Nature of Health and Hygiene Advertisements” in Penny Light, et.al, “Introduction,” in Bodily Subjects: Essays on Gender and Health, 1800-2000, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015:

 

[1] Mary Jane Ashley, “Alcohol use during pregnancy: A Challenge in the ‘80s.” Canadian Medical Association Journal (1981) Vol. 125 p. 141.

Defining and Contesting Illness – Cancer

The main theme in all of these articles was the impact of awareness and how the public needed to be educated on health concerned, but also how society had already constructed certain views on illnesses based on gender.

“Malignant Histories: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Female Cancer Patient in the Postwar Era” – Patricia Jasen

In Patricia Jasen’s article, “Malignant Histories: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Female Cancer Patient in the Postwar Era,” she discusses the idea that gender has become tightly tied to the issues of diseases such as cancer. Jasen focused on the idea asexuality and the role of maternal health in connection to women getting cancer. It was suggested that mom who did a good job were less likely to get sick, and that goes hand in hand with the societal construction of beliefs surrounding gender and illness. This article focused on the emotional health of the female population, they connect this to the motherhood and maternal health and can be connected to Miele and Clarke’s article titled, “”We Remain Very Much the Second Sex”: The Construction of Prostate Cancer in Popular News Magazines, 2000-2010”, because this article discusses the stereotypes created by society and its connection to diseases such as cancer. Patricia Jasen uses these ideas to expand the broader historiography of cancer as she discusses the evolution of the history of cancer and the different ideas and stereotypes that were connected to gendered ideals.

 

“The Challenge of Developing and Publicizing Cervical Cancer Screening Programs: A Canadian Perspective” – Mandy Hadenko

Mandy Hadenko discusses the screening processes for cancer in women and it ties into the overarching theme of this week’s readings, of educated the general public on disease and to help them make informed decision about their health, in terms of illness. This article was interesting to read as the information of the screening process and how it has evolved over time and the effectiveness of catching the cancer early enough. This article can be connected to the chapter from Wendy Mitchinson’s book because they both discuss the screening and treatment of cervical cancer in female patients. The idea of cancer being scarier than the actual disease itself was mentioned and this seems to be an idea we still have today. Cancer seems as if it is a really scary word, but in most cases the treatment for particular cancers is not tremendous. It is a socially constructed idea that has followed us through history, which is why this article adds to the greater knowledge of this topic on cancer and the screening process. If the cancer is caught soon enough the treatment and recovery is less invasive. Hadenko expands on the knowledge of screening for cervical cancer in women and strongly suggested that it be available to more women in society. It was also discussed that this disease needs to be made public and all the treatment options should be given to the women of society and they should not feel ashamed.

 

“A Womanly Body: A Cancer Threat” – Wendy Mitchinson

Wendy Mitchinson discusses the idea of screening and treatment for cancer in women. Although this article was very educational about the treatment options, I found it really odd that surgery was the first resort in some cases instead of the less intensive measures we have today. Today doctors would wait to do surgery until they thought it was absolutely necessary. The change in knowledge and understanding of medical treatment is extremely captivating especially in a disease that takes so many of our loved ones’ lives. The education of treatment and the disease itself are crucial for the publics ability to make informed decisions. Mitchinson discusses how the female body has not always been the focus of doctors’ knowledge, as doctors were primarily male and it was a struggle for women to get into that role, so It would not be shocking to see female bodies as not fully understood. This article can be connected to Mandy Hadenko’s article titled “The Challenge of Developing and Publicizing Cervical Cancer Screening Programs: A Canadian Perspective”, because it discusses the importance of screening for cancer and how the importance of education of women who may be more susceptible to this disease. It was argued that the more the public knows, the more assistance can be given to those who found themselves in trouble. These ideas add to the historiography of this topic because it shows the development of the screening process of testing for cancer.

 

“”We Remain Very Much the Second Sex”: The Construction of Prostate Cancer in Popular News Magazines, 2000-2010” – Miele and Clarke

With this article looking at the portrayal of cancer in the media and its connection to gender, Miele and Clarke presented a lot of stereotypes constructed by society. They focused on the aspect of masculinity and how prostate cancer was connected to that due to society. Men are presented as strong and capable but when it comes to diseases and sickness such as cancer, their wives or women in their lives take on the responsibly of their health. This is a form of gender construction created in society, women are seen as expected to be caretakers, but as we see in the other articles when women are sick, men are not come to pick up the responsibilities. The stereotypes of that of women and men are very different, cervical or breast cancer in women is viewed differently from men with prostate cancer, as men see prostate cancer as a threat to their masculinity. Whereas, the emotional health of women, and their ability to be a mother, as discussed in the article, “Malignant Histories: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Female Cancer Patient in the Postwar Era” by Patricia Jasen, was connected to the health. This article contains important historical context for the historiography of cancer, it article adds to this topic as it takes the views of the media and shows what society was thinking about at the time in terms of this topic, instead of primarily doctors’ perspectives.

 

“Potential Adverse Effects of Maternal Alcohol Ingestion on the Developing Fetus and their Sequelae in the Infant and Child” – A.B Morrison, M.O. Maykut

This is an article I plan on using in my research paper as it works well into my idea of arguing that even though pregnancy and childbirth was medicalized and the doctors argued they knew best, they were still trying to understand the effects of alcohol on a growing fetus into the late 70s. It tied well into this week’s readings because it discusses the importance of providing the education needed to help the public make informed discussions about their health. The information about the effects of alcohol on fetuses, was not fully determined, but it was suggested in the article that all women who are of age to have children be presented with the education needed to make the decision. This article can be connected to several articles from this week, because they all discuss the importance of educating the public on health matters. The information in order to prevent or for treatment are important for the public to be aware of. This article also has a connection to another book and quote I plan on using in my paper, and it discusses the idea that alcohol did not have an impact on the growing fetuses, even in the 1960s.

 

 

Bibliography

Hadenko, Mandy, “The Challenge of Developing and Publicizing Cervical Screening Programs:  A Canadian Perspective,” in Cheryl Krasnick Warsh (Ed), Gender, Health and Popular Culture: Historical Perspectives, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011: 127      152.

Jasen, Patricia, “Malignant Histories: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Female Cancer Patient in the Postwar Era,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 20, 2 (2003): 265-297.

Maykut & Morrison, “Potential adverse effects of maternal alcohol ingestion on the developing fetus and their sequelae in the infant and child.” Canadian Medical Association Journal  (1979) Vol. 120 p. 826-828.

Miele, Richelle and Juanne Clarke, “‘We Remain Very Much the Second Sex’: The Constructions of Prostate Cancer in Popular News Magazines, 2000-2010,” American Journal of Men’s Health, 8, 1 (2014): 15-25.

Mitchinson, Wendy, “The Womanly Body: A Cancer Threat,” in Body Failure: Medical Views  of Women, 1900-1950, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013: 215-238.